444 NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Transkriptio

1 The Finnish Environment 444 NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES Albert Sigurdsson Landscape ecological changes in the Kuhmo border area after 1940 A cumulative effects assessment approach i;i ;i '~". j i. - c: ic ~'s.ffi,,:: l:r.,.s :....,.,. ;r :--' å ": ;.;.. ; I '. -i1 e a! 0!!

2 The Finnish vi A cumulative effects assessment approach HELSINKI 1999

3 ISBN 952-I ISSN Cover photo: Lammasperä, west of Lake Kivi-Kiekki Printing: Edita Ltd Helsinki The Finnish Environment 275

4 Table of contents List of f s ures... 4 Introduction The study area Study boundaries Methods and materials... I I 2.1 The cumulative environmental effects The landscape ecological approach Materials used Results I iscussion Forest cutting Mire drainage and its ecological effects The effects of roads The cumulative effect of cutting, drainage and roads onclusions Acknowledgementss Documentationpages The Finnish Environment 275

5 List fiires Figure 1 The Kiekki study area, its main features and place names...6 Figure 2 Finnish Friendship park and the Russian Kostamus strict nature reserve..7 Figure 3 Current forest patches in the Kiekki study area, as noted from aerial photos in the svalel: Figure 4 Proposed new nature reserves proposed in the Natura 2000 programme..9 Figure 5 An illustration of environmental impacts and cumulative effects...10 Figure 6 The main landscape elements in Kiekki...12 Figure 7 Forest cutting in the Kiekki area from Figure 8 The extent of forestry in Kiekki from Figure 9 The extent of drainage ditches in Figure 10 Potential pristine areas or regions outside areas which are affected by humanactions Figure 11 A map showing how mires and forest patches fit with potentially pristineareas Figure 12 Hotspots of biodiversity compared with the potentially pristine areas inkiekki Figure 13 A graph of cumulative environmental effects and two future scenarios Figure 14 A simple classification of forest edges into high and low contrast edges Figure 15 Forest patch interiors in Kiekki assuming a 30 meter edge effect Figure 16 Forest patch interiors in Kiekki assuming a 100 meter edge effect Figure 17 Future scenario assuming maximum habitat conservation Figure 18 Future scenario with maximum economic timber harvesting and continued clearcutting The Finnish Environment 275

6 Introduction The study presented here is focused on a landscape level, borrowing the concept of landscapes from such fields as geography and landscape ecology. Studies of landscapes have become more common in natural sciences in the last years due to more and better tools and techniques for studying larger areas, along with a realization of the importance of scale in studying changes in nature and the environment. Not all environmental changes can be efficiently studied at close level, e.g. species or patch level, since many issues may come better in to focus when studying regions and landscapes. This paper is focused on three of the main forest management activities which have been practiced in the border area of north-east Finland. These activities are: forest clearcutting, mire ditching and road development. Other human activities in the area should be kept in mind but are not studied here in detail, these include forest fertilisation, human recreation, tourism, small scale mining, some selective forest cutting and fisheries, to name a few. Forest clearcuts, drainage ditches and roads each result both direct and indirect environmental and ecological effects. These effects may seem insignificant if individual stretches of road, ditches or forest clearing are studied individually, while the accumulated effect of these practices in space and time may result in significant accumulated change and significant environmental effects when studied together on a landscape level. The aim of the study is to establish how the cumulative effects of forestry and related activities are manifested in the landscape, and whether the resulting changes are in fact cumulative effects. A secondary aim of the study is to look into the effectiveness of the GIS approach for analysing and for assessing cumulative environmental effects. The approach of the study is largely quantitative as it relies heavily on the presentation and analysis of GIS generated thematic maps. The study is based on theories of landscape ecology set within a framework of cumulative environmental effects assessment, and is thus mostly focused on a landscape level and not placing any emphasis on individual habitats or species in the area. 1.1 The study area This paper is based on the study of an 112 km2 area in Kuhmo in north-east Finland, adjacent to the Russian border. The study area covers the surrounding landscape of the lakes Elimyssalo, Saari-Kiekki, Kivi-Kiekki and Kaita-Kiekki, and will be called the Kiekki area in this paper (see Figure 1). The Kiekki area lies in the middle boreal zone, "the real core area of the coniferous zone" (Rikkinen 1992), at elevations from 220 to 290 meters above sea level. Forests consist mainly of Norway spruce (Picea abies), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and birch (Betula pubescens). Pine and spruce are both planted commercially in managed forest areas, while birch also grows fast in clearcut and drained areas. The Kiekki study area can be considered to be made up of three parts each with different history of land use and functions which are relevant to this study (Figure 1): 1. The Finnish-Russian border zone; 2. A section of the Elimyssalo nature reserve, protected since 1990; 3. Other state-owned areas and previously privately owned land. The Finnish border zone in Kiekki remained mostly untouched by human activities during the Soviet period, but since 1990 the forests on the Finnish side of the border have been largely clearcut. The Elimyssalo area has been partially conserved since the The Finnish Environment 275

7 Lake Elimyssalo 290 ' Elimyssalo nature reserve.. Saari-kiekki Kaita-kie r ~ : K, iekki. 4, udy area Kivenj ärvi 260 Kivi-kiekki 260..%" 270 Kuikkajärvi 220 L 24o 1: tudy rea National border I I Study area Elimyssalo Nature Reserve Roads Lakes Ri vers Figure 1 The Kiekki study area, its main features and the place names used in this study. 0...The Finnish Environment 275

8 1970s as a "no hunting" ground for protection of forest reindeer populations. The current Elimyssalo nature reserve, which includes this former "no hunting" area, was established by law in 1990 as a part of the Finnish Friendship Park. The Friendship Park comprises 5 nature reserves on the Finnish side of the border which are meant to complement the somewhat larger Kostamus strict nature reserve on the Russian side (Figure 2). Both state and privately owned land in Kiekki have been subject to systematic forest cuttings since the 1940s. Approximately 27% of the study area is protected within the Elimyssalo Reserve. From aerial photos one can clearly see that outside the Elimyssalo reserve the forest is highly fragmented, with forest patches in various successional stages (Figure 3). An important feature of the Finnish-Russian border landscape is a thick, green belt of unmanaged forest in near natural state which lies on the Russian side of the border and can be seen on Landsat satellite images of the Finnish-Russian border from the early 1990s. This so called 'Green Belt of Carelia' is comprised of natural forest landscapes which stretch along the Russian side of the border. The Carelian green belt is believed to have for some time acted as a source of biological diversity and wildlife for Finnish forests and nature conservation areas and is very important for the areas of Finland adjacent to the Russian border, including the Kiekki area. T o ;nc!iie._ Ct L re tudy area N Ulvinsalo strict nature reserve 1: ~' Figure 2 The Finnish Friendship Park and the Russian Kostamus strict nature reserve. The Finnish Environment

9 .' National border Elimyssalo Nature Reserve Study area Lakes /V Rivers Pristine areas i n 1996 Figure 3 Current forest patches in the Kiekki study area, as noted from aerial photos in the scale 1: The Finnish Environment 275

10 The Kiekki study area can be considered a typical landscape of the Finnish mid-boreal zone, while at the same time showing some specific characteristics due to the proximity with the Russian border as well as including both current and proposed future nature protection areas. 1.2 Study boundaries Concerning the spatial boundaries used in this study, it has been noted in a conceptual study of cumulative environmental change that "rational choices as to the temporal and spatial constraints to our analysis of environmental change are seldom immediately obvious" (Cocklin et al. 1992). Similarly rational boundaries of a landscape study can be difficult both to distinguish and determine. Theoretically the use of watersheds, mountain ranges, or specific ecosystem limits seem like the most rational spatial limits for environmental studies, while in reality the use of existing administrative boundaries and anthropogenic structures which may have little to do with the environmental qualities of the landscape, are often used (Clark 1994) as they are often easier to determine. The boundaries used in the current study of the Kiekki landscape reflect mainly the latter approach since roads to the south and west of the study area and the Finnish-Russian border to the east of Kiekki are used. The northern limit of the Kiekki study area is a fairly random line which has largely been determined by the coverage of the 1996 aerial photos which were made available for this study. However, the Kiekki area boundaries come close to following the upper part of the major watershed boundaries in the region, and the landscape can in this sense be regarded as a unique part of the boreal landscape. Within the Kiekki area the GIS analysis is based on biotope boundaries that have been drawn by the Forest and Park Service for forest classification purposes, based on ground vegetation to determine the specific forest patches within the area. INdLIUlIdl UUIUCI Study area { Elimyssalo Nature Reserve Lakes Rivers.` New Natura 200 reserves - : N Figure 4 Proposed new nature reserves proposed in the Natura 2000 programme. The Finnish Environment

11 Temporal limits of studies concerning environmental change can also be difficult to decide, one challenge of assessing cumulative environmental effects is to determine how far into the future and how far into the past it is feasible or possible to study the cumulative past, present and future environmental effects (Clark 1994). In another study it is noted that "the appropriate baseline for considering the significance of cumulative impacts is that time in the past when the valued environmental attribute was most abundant" (McCold and Saulsbury 1996). This means that one should look to compare the present landscape with an indact landscape of the past before significant human caused changes occurred. On the other hand the availability of data is often a major factor regarding temporal limits. Historical records of past land use, agriculture, silviculture, drainage, forest fires and other events need also to be considered when determining the temporal boundaries of a cumulative effect study. In the current study, due to the long term disturbance and succession cycles of the natural boreal forests (up to hundreds of years) it is presumed that forests which have not been cut before the 1940s may be viewed as old growth forests in a natural state. The historical records from the Kiekki area concerning large scale forestry practices have been recorded since the 1940s, before this time there has been relatively little forest cutting within this area (see Juntunen 1997). As for reasonably foreseeable future activities in the Kiekki area, no concrete land use plans have been made available apart from a forest cutting plan made by the Forest and Park Service in Kuhmo, and a proposal for new nature conservation areas in Kiekki included in the Natura 2000 programme (Figure 4). Also, since the Kiekki area is under the control of the Finnish Forest and Park Service, one assumes that the same general policy for forest management, thinning and maintenance applies in Kiekki as in all state owned forests in Finland which are not specified as nature protection areas. But this policy nowadays includes procedures for sustainable tree harvesting, landscape ecological planning and forest drainage (Finnish Forest and Park Service 1994). A. Beginning of human Human changed environment influence - - ''I Environmental y \ r--r t f impac, - I c w c Natural dynamics Time T Threshold of significance Cumulative effects / of cutting and drainage Effects of forest cutting n Effects of bog drainage Natural dynamics Time Figure 5 An illustration of environmental impacts and cumulative effects The Finnish Environment 275

12 The current study combines two distinct but related methodological approaches, namely the framework of cumulative effects assessments as it has been developed by environmental management specialists of various diciplines, and the landscape ecological approach for valuation of spatio-temporal changes in the main landscape components. 2.1 Cumulative environmental effects Environmenal impact assessments or EIAs, have since the 1960s become one of the basic principles of environmental management. Such studies are often focused on past and future changes in the environment and environmental quality on local or site level. During the last two decades many shortcomings have been found with EIAs in practice and in basic EIA ideology. Some scholars have suggested a total revision of the EIA concept (see e.g. Cocklin et al.1992, Smith 1993), while others have striven to increase the efficiency of current EIA procedures by applying new instruments (see e.g. Lawrence 1994, Lawrence 1997). One major shortcoming of the current EIA process is a lack of dealing effectively with the cumulative changes caused by two or more projects or project components which are not normally believed to have a significant environmental impact. The concept of cumulative effects assessment, or CEA, has been developed largely due to the fact that EIAs are almost exclusively carried out on a project to project basis (Cocklin et al.1992, Spaling and Smit 1993). For example the EC Directive 85/337 on environmental impact assessment only applies to project level decision making (Commission of the EC 1996), while national legislation sets the final list of projects and activities which are subject to EIA. There are also many types of projects which fall out of the scope of EIAs according to the current environmental regulations. Today there are mainly project level EIAs which account for the environmental effects caused by the projects or project components, and study if these effects are to be considered significant or not. Environmental effects which are not considered to be significant or to be of minor importance are often not analysed further in the EIA process. With this in mind it seems clear that there maybe many projects and project components that either are not subject to EIA or are not considered as having significant environmental impacts. The effects of many such 'non-significant' activities can add up over time and space resulting in cumulative environmental changes (Spaling 1997). Such changes can be termed cumulative effects or cumulative impacts which are generally interchangeable terms (Spaling 1997), and can be defined as "the incremental effect of an impact added to other past, present and reasonably foreseeable future impacts" (e.g. Clark1994, Johnston et al.1990). There are several ways in which two or more unrelated human activities can result in significant cumulative environmental change. Effects may accumulate over time from one single project, or the added environmental effects of different projects may cause environmental deterioration within a certain area. Figure 5 presents an illustration of the fundamental difference between environmental impacts and cumulative effects. Cumulative effects may result from either single source activities such as specific factories, multiple point sources within a neighbouring area, or due to non-point source activities, like agriculture, forestry or roads. Cumulative effects can also be regarded as either simply additive, or as 'synergistic' where the end result is more than just the sum of the main parts. Some hypothetical examples provided by Cocklin et al. (1992) may shed further The Finnish Environment

13 light on the spatio-temporal nature of cumulative effects. Table 1 presents a typology of cumulative effects which has been suggested by Spaling (1994). Multiple point source cumulative effects: Where two (or more) activities, e.g. factories in close proximity, emit enough pollution to be considered significant even if each of the individual activities has been proved to have little or no significant environmental impact or pollution levels are within legal emission thresholds (e.g. Spaling 1994). Non-point sources effects: E.g. where extensive mire ditching and soil compacting result in the loss of rare wetland habitats, as well as an increased runoff of nutrients, and an increased flood danger downriver (Lull et al.1995). The patchiness effect: Where forest clearcutting contributes to habitat fragmentation and lead to a loss in biological and biotope diversity (Cocklin et al.1992). Each of these above situations may result from multiple activities and cannot be effectively considered in EIAs at a proj ect level, but need instead to be handled at a more strategic level of administration, e.g. programmatic, policy or other land use planning levels which correspond generally to landscape and regional scales which are considerably larger than for most project EIAs which are studied on the more local scale, e.g. surrounding a project site. It is generally recognized that there is no single overall methodology or approach for assessing environmental impacts which can serve properly for all situations and projects, and this also holds true for cumulative impacts (see e.g. Bardecki 1990, Clark 1994). A landscape can be a large and relatively uniform area with a mosaic of several ecosystem elements. Landscape ecology seeks to understand the ecological function of large areas and hypothesizes that the spatial arrangement of ecosystems, habitats or communities has ecological implications (Johnson et al. 1990), thus landscape ecology was defined by Carl Troll in the 1930s as a "study of the complex of causal relationshi between the biotic communities and their environment within a certain part of the landscape" (quoted from Tuhkanen 1994). A more recent definition describes landscape ecology as "the interactions among patches within a landscape mosaic, and how these patterns and interactions change over time" (McGarigal and Marks 1994). Figure 6 The main landscape elements in Kiekki. 0...The Finnish Environment 275

14 Table 1 A typology describing the source of cumulative effects based on three examples of human-environment interaction (based on Spaling 1994). EXAMPLES Construction of Forestry clearcutting CO2 emissions from hydro-electric dam fossil fuels Temporal scale Short x Long x x Spatial scale Local x Regional x Global x Configuration Point x Areal x x Sources Similar x x Various x Some of the basic concepts of landscape ecology considered here include the spatial and temporal disruption of biotopes, loss of pristine habitats, habitat fragmentation, and edge effects, as well as the cumulative effects of human activities on these processes. The landscape canbe considered to be made up of spatial elements, which have been defined by R.T. Foreman as "relatively homogeneous units recognized in a mosaic at any scale" (Foreman 1995, p. 39). The term spatial elements is used as a synonym for biotopes and habitats in general, and may include forest patches, mires, lakes, rivers and other relevant features of the landscape. Figure 6 shows a rough division of three main spatial elements in Kiekki where the main surface types are mineral soils, mires, and open waters, based on the forest classification by the Finnish Forest and Park Service, and on observations from aerial photographs. Included in mineral soils are also roads, farmsteads, and small quarries. 2.3 Materials used A variety of maps and geographical data were used for this study, all of which are currently available in Finland. The main materials used include: Aerial photos in the scale 1:20000 from the years 1971, 1987 and 1996, which cover ca. 1/2 of the Elimyssalo Nature Reserve which coveres approximately 1/3 of the study area; Current Forest Resource Maps in GIS format with specific forest patch classification and attribute data; Forest cutting maps based on the above mentioned Forest Resource Maps, prepared by the Friendship Park Research Centre, showing the forest cutting in Kiekki with 5 year intervals since 1940; Basic topographic maps in the scale 1:20000 from 1990, and elevation vector maps in digital format; Historical Forest Resource Maps from the years 1918,1952 and 1982, which show the main types of land use, farms and roads, along with planned cuttings, ditching; A local knowledge map showing the hotspots of biodiversity in the Kiekki area, drafted by a local forest specialist at the Friendship Park Research Centre in Kuhmo. The Forest Resource Maps from the Finnish Forest and Park Service give detailed classification of individual forest patches in the area and contain a database of up to The Finnish Environment 275

15 date information about each forest stand including e.g. the stand size, forest type, mire type, etc. These current Forest Resource Maps were thus used as background biotopes for further examination of changes in the landscape. The aerial photographs from different time periods were used to compare extent of human activities with other available data sources, and the 1996 aerial photos were also the most recent source of data from the 1990s. The forest cutting maps prepared by the Friendship Park Research Centre were also valuable since they saved much work in looking up the forest cutting record from the study area. Topographic maps proved to be the best data source concerning the extent of mire drainage but were complemented by information provided by both the aerial photos and the forest resource database. Other maps were used mainly as reference and for comparing the validity of the data. A vector based GIS (ArcView) was used to set up and analyse the data, using vector data also means that the actual scale of the resulting maps becomes irrelevant and the data can be viewed at various scales of detail without losing quality. The practical parts of this study involved the digitization of lakes, rivers, study borders, reserve borders and national borders, roads and drainage ditches, as well as the classification of these according to age. Much of the other data was already available in digital format so the GIS could be used to retrieve the relevant information. To establish the probable extent of areas affected by humans as opposed to "pristine" areas, a map layer showing the extent of roads, ditches and cut forests in 1996 was created with additional buffer zones drawn around the affected areas. The buffer zone is based on the preliminary ideas that forest edge effects may affect about meters or more from edge to forest patch interior. It is also assumed that drainage ditches drain the land from meters or more to both sides of the ditch depending on the slope, and finally the roads which are mainly sand and gravel roads in this area result both in an edge effect as well as increasing dust in roadside areas. Thus two different buffer zones were drawn in this study, one representing a 30 meters edge and the other a 100 meters edge. The GIS was then used to produce a maps of potentially "pristine" areas, or areas which are at least 30 and 100 meters distant from any of the human activity areas. It is then assumed that any forest patches or mires placed within these pristine areas may potentially be in natural state and could thus be regarded as old growth forest patches and/or virgin mires. The method presented here is somewhat elemental, while GIS data collection, preparation, and analysis were the most time consuming tasks of the study The Finnish Environment 275

16 O O O O 0 0 O Before the 1940s there was very little forest cutting in the Kiekki area, perhaps due to it's remoteness with rivers as the main transportation routes, and because timber needs of the Finnish forest industry were never as great as after WWII. Old forest-economic maps (Talouskartta in Finnish) from 1915, 1952 and 1968 show that there has been very little mire ditching before the 1970s in the area. A recent study (Juntunen 1997) illustrates that documented forest cuttings before 1940 only occurred on a few separate locations, mainly between the years 1905 and 1913 (Figure 7), and field examination has shown that some selective tree cutting has occurred in some currently standing forest patches in Kiekki. In the early 1940s the first large forest clearcutting was in Risuvaara west of lake Saari-Kiekki, which today lies within the Elimyssalo Nature Reserve. The rate of forest cutting increased in time until it peaked in the 1980s and 1990s (cutting rate has remained similar in the 1980s and 90s) as shown in Table 2, while the spatial extent of forest areas affected by cutting since the 1940s is illustrated in Figure 8. Before the 1940s the total forest coverage within the study area has been about 60 km Z which is 54% of the surface area, while in 1996 some 33 km Z or approximately 55% of the original forest has been cut. Current forest patches in Kiekki situated outside the Elimyssalo reserve are relatively small and discontinuous (see Figure 3), and possibly so fragmented that the current patches may already be unsuitable as habitats for many of the species specialized in old growth forest environments. Mire drainage in the Kiekki area started in the 1960s. Most of ditching activity occurred in the 1970s and 80s. Today there are about 450 km of drainage ditches within the study area (Figure 9), which amounts to ca. 12 km2 of drained land with the assumption of average reach of the drainage is about 20 meters to each side of the ditches. With an assumption of 50 meter drainage effect to each side of the ditches results in a total of ca. 23 km2 of drained land. These numbers suggest that the land affected by drainage may lie somewhere between 20 %-40% of the total mire areas in Kiekki. Assuming an increased plant and tree growth in drained mires also suggests that the long term changes due to mire ditching may result in the loss of biotope diversity, since drained mires will in the long term develop similar characteristics as monoculture forests. With the current study materials the basic common measure for establishing the cumulative effects of different forest management activities is the spatial extent of affected land. By mapping the spatial extent of the forestry, ditching and road building in a GIS, one can draw a zone outside of the managed areas (Figure 10) which are presumably in a pristine state. Inside these potentially pristine areas one should therefore find areas which are in natural state, includingboth old growth forest stands and virgin mires (Figure 11). To check the reliability of this approach a map of the main hotspots of biodiversity (hotspots are here regarded as areas known by local experts to be generally rich in habitats and species) in the Kiekki area has been sketched separately by persons with a local knowledge of the Elimyssalo-Kiekki region (A. Meriruoko, personal communication). As seen on Figure 12 the local knowledge of biodiversity correlates in many parts within the potential pristine areas which were deducted from the current study. Finally it is important to look at a regional level to see that both the proximity of the Elimyssalo nature reserve and the 'Green Belt of Careliå may act as sources of genetic and species diversity for the remaining pristine biotopes in the Kiekki area. The addition of new nature reserve areas in Vonganjärvi-Vuorivaara and an extension The Finnish Environment

17 to Elimyssalo reserve south of Kaita-Kiekki (Figure 4) and perhaps further landscape-ecological planning of forest corridors and stepping stones may further strengthen the biodiversity in the area. The cumulative effects of the activities studied are summed up in fig. 13 This figure assumes a simple additive relationship between the land use activities in question, while in reality the relationship maybe quite different due to the synergistic nature of impact interactions. Some ecological changes may affect larger a area than the one considered here, or play a small but still important role if one considers that such changes are occurring widely all over Finland. National border Study area Elimyssalo Nature Reserve Cut_1940.shp Lakes Rivers N 1: Figure 7 Forest cutting in the Kiekki area from (after Juntunen 1997) The Finnish Environment 275

18 National border t j EI i myssal o Nature Reserve C] Study area Lakes Rivers Forest cut Forest cut Forest cut Forest cut E Forest cut Forest cut PI anned cutting N 1: Figure 8 The extent of forestry in Kiekki from The Finnish Environment 275

19 National border. i EI i myssal o Nature Reserve Q Study area Lakes Rivers Drainage ditches before 1971 Drainage ditches Drainage ditches N 1: Figure 9 The extent of drainage ditches in the Kiekki area in The Finnish Environment 275

20 National border - ' Eli myssal o Nature Reserve C] Study area N Lakes Rivers Pristineareasin : Figure 10 Potential pristine areas or regions outside areas affected by human actions in The Finnish Environment

21 National border Study area Elimyssalo Reserve Pristine mires Forest patches w. 30 m edges Pristine areas in 1996 Lakes Rivers I N.Å 1: Figure 11 A map showing how mires and forest patches fit with the potentially pristine areas. National border Study area -i Elimyssalo Reserve Hotspots of biodiversity Pristine areas in 1996 Lakes Rivers N ;;~ 1: Figure 12 Hotspots of biodiversity compared with the potentially pristine areas in Kiekki The Finnish Environment 275

22 e e... Forest clearcutting, soil preparation, tree planting and forest thinning have been practiced in Finland since the 1950s (Kubin and Kemppainen 1994, Sjöberg and Lennartsson 1995). This kind of forest management is very effective in producing a maximum sustainable yield from forest resources (Ministry of Environment 1992), but may also lead to a decrease in forest biotope diversity and subsequently to losses in biological diversity. In Finland the main nature conservation principle has traditionally been to preserve flora and fauna inside protected nature conservation parks and reserves (Sjöberg and Lennartsson 1995), while in recent years the official policy of the Finnish Forest and Park Service has been to promote a so-called landscape ecological forest planning where areas of nature value and managed forests form a network of conservation areas, old growth forest are connected by means of ecological corridors, stepping stones, and careful forest cutting plans aimed at enhancing biological diversity (Korhonen 1996). Natural fire disturbance patterns should also be imitated whenever possible by leaving enough wood in the clearcut areas for those species which specialize in dead and decaying wood (Forest and Park Service 1994, p. 31, Sjöberg and Lennartsson 1995, p. 220). The landscape-ecological approach should apply to all state-owned forests by the year 2001 (Korhonen 1996). The landscape-ecological approach will replace the earlier forestry practices which were solely aimed at monoculture with forest stands of even age and of high quality timber (Haila 1994), by systematically removing unwanted tree species like aspen and other deciduous trees and most dead and decaying wood from the forests (Wahlström et al. 1996). Due to the integrative nature of cumulative effects studies the discussion here will be divided into four fundamental components, namely forest cutting, mire drainage, effects of roads, and finally the cumulative effects of these. 7y,o 6Q0 5Q0 63,4 54,0 4(() 10,0 0, L COO YEAR 2010 Read - t)i ined (1e a.t ut area area 2'rea. Ecological future tr id Ernunttucal ma.mn miu eyend Figure 13 A graph of cumulative environmental effects and two future scenarios. The Finnish Environment 275,,.. o,, e, e,,,,

23 4.1 Forest cutting Silvicultural practices create a fragmented forest landscape with relatively small biotopes in different successional stages (Väisänen and Heliövaara 1994). Clearcutting of forests causes several changes in the landscape, these include (1) the loss of forest biotopes in natural state, (2) forest fragmentation, and (3) an increase in forest edge boundaries (see e.g. Angelstam 1992, and Haila 1994). Biotopes in natural state are here regarded as habitats which have not had major disturbances from human activities since forest cutting was initiated in the Kiekki area in the 1940s. Thus traces of human activities older than years old can be viewed as traditional or a natural part of the landscape, which are seen as the opposite of cultural landscapes resulting from modern and more intensive land-use activities. The loss of old growth forest habitats leads to the loss of those species which have adapted specially to such habitats. The disappearance of such "specialist species" may in turn affect the living conditions of other species which depend on them as prey, for seed dispersal, or other ecosystem interactions. Studies from south-central Sweden have shown that specialist species are usually absent from managed forests, in the southern boreal zone (Hansson 1994, p. 69), and results of studies in various part of the boreal forest in Finland show that an immediate effect of clearcutting is the increase in numbers of several "generalist species" in the new growth and forest edges around the clearcutting (see e.g. Virkkala 1987, Väisänen and Heliövaara 1994). Such changes in species composition disrupt the ecology and quality of habitats around the clearcut areas. Thus in the long-term, extensive forest clearcutting may result in monocultural landscapes made up of structurally similar biotopes, in which only species adapted to such managed habitats e.g. some generalist species can thrive. Forest habitat fragmentation occurs as forest patches become smaller and more distant from each other e.g. due to forest clearing or road development. This process complements natural forest-mire mosaic landscapes where natural agents, e.g. wet mires, rivers and lakes restrict the size of forest habitats. Fragmentation limits the movement of species between forest habitats, which is particularly affecting certain species having low dispersal ability e.g. forest insects, which are in general regarded as keystone species since their spatial distribution affects the forest dynamics while at the same time the size and shape of habitats in the forest landscape will also affect insect occurrence (Väisänen and Heliövaara 1994). The main difference between human caused and natural fragments is ecotone sharpness. All but the wettest mires are likely support trees to some extent and even if the trees appear scanty, the few standing trees will reduce the contrast between open mire areas and forest (Figure 14). Man-made edges due to either forestry or clearing for roads differ from naturally occurring edges such as edges or ecotones between forests and mires, or between forest and river or lake, which are generally low-contrast edges (Figures 14) and "in the natural landscape fewer patch edges are high-contrast" (Mladenoff et.al 1994, p. 758). High-contrast edges have different ecological and physical characteristics than the interiors of forests or central parts of clearcut areas. Usually clearcutting in boreal forests results in high-contrast boundaries between forest patches and the clearcut areas (Hansson 1994, p. 69). High-contrast edges influence the ecosystem quality of the forest patch interior since the forest becomes more open to wind and sunlight, as well as to perturbations in surface temperature and water balance. These changes make the forest edge unsuitable for those species which have adapted to the more sheltered environments of the interior forests. On the other hand, some species which thrive in edge habitats can migrate to recently cut edges and cause further disruption of the ecosystem. This process is commonly referred to as an'edge effect'. Edge effects temporarily increase biological productivity within biotopes since species diversity may include both the native species and edge species, on the other hand extensive edge effects will result in a long term decrease of biotope and habitat diversity, especially when viewed at a larger regional scale. The sharp forest boundary will also cause changes in microclimate both within the forest as well as in the open area which has been cleared. Wind penetrates deeper into the forest and causes damage at the forest edges around the clearcut areas (Väisänen and Heliövaara 1994). Increased sunshine on the clearcut area will also increase. The Finnish Environment

24 temperature fluctuations and cause greater evaporation of top-soil and surface water (Foreman 1995). It can generally be stated that edge effects affect different species in different ways. Thus very mobile species like birds, mammals and winged insects will easily migrate away from edge areas. It has also been pointed out that species adapted to the boreal environment must be capable of surviving disturbances such as forest fires and perhaps also clearcutting (Haila 1994), but only if the distances to another similar forest habitats are not too great. Edge effects in forest patches due to clearcutting have been reported to be from 50 meters (Virkkala 1987, Angelstam 1992), up to 100 meters or more from the clearcut edge (Towle 1997) depending on the species studied and the scale used. In the Kiekki area there are extensive edge effects due to forest clearcutting. Figure 15 shows that by assuming a 30 meter edge effect there may be numerous small forest biotopes available in the study area outside the Elimyssalo Nature Reserve, while an assumption of edge effects over 100 m (Figure 16) reveals that there are few old forest habitats available for specialist species which depend on extensive forest patch interiors for survival. Due to the small sizes of the current forest patches outside the Elimyssalo reserve, a scenario using more than 100 meters edge effect will show that there are very few extensive forest patch interiors within the study area. 4.2 Mire drainage and its ecological effects Mire ditching and drainage lower the water table in mires so the top vegetation layer may dry up and become more suitable for increased tree production. On the whole the draining of fertile spruce mires causes a short term increase in ecosystem production, resulting rather heathy peatlands, which can be good sites for growing spruce (Vasander 1990, Hannelius and Kuusela 1995). A long term effect of mire LOW CONTRAST EDGES HIGH CONTRAST EDGES ~Lr r~!i r~e Forest meets road Figure 14 A simple classification of forest edges into high and low contrast edges. The Finnish Environment

25 ( 4e -' L' ` late,-04 r ~+m+ _ 'yam A r 1 1k* ' ~ d National border _ ' Study area i rr:i Elimyssalo Reserve Lakes N Rivers Forest patches Figure 15 Forest patch interiors in Kiekki assuming a 30 meter edge effect.. Elimyssalo Reserve Lakes N Rivers Forest patches 1: Figure 16 Forest patch interiors in Kiekki assuming a 100 meter edge effect The Finnish Environment 275

26 Table 2 Forest cutting by periods since the 1940s Area Proportion oforiginal Cutting rate km t forest cover, % km1/year ~ Forest cut ,9 I 0,1 Forest cut ,4 4 0,2 Forest cut ,0 8 0,5 Forest cut ,1 II 0,6 Forest cut ,8 20 1,2 Forest cut ,8 11 1,1 Total cut forest area: 32, , drainage is the decline in mire plant species and other wetland species (Vasander 1990). Short term environmental effect of bog drainage is not easily detected on a landscape level, although local effects may be considerable. The local effects of drainage on vegetation may reach up to 50 m to each side of the drainage ditch, depending on slope and mire type (R. Heikkilä pers. comm.). Some secondary effects of mire drainage are notably: increased water runoff, humus runoff into downstream watercourses, and erosion (Finnish Forest and Park Service 1994). Tree damage caused by excavating machines during ditch maintenance has been discussed (Lauhanen 1994), and wasteful mire destruction due to unproductive drainage and inaccuracy in mire site type identification have also been reported (Heikkilä 1984, Saarinen and Silver 1992, Paasovaara 1994). Ecological changes due to extensive mire drainage will result in regional loss of habitat diversity, where species dependent on mire ecosystems loose their habitats and in time, if the mire becomes increasingly forested, species preferring young growing forest will increase. Such a scenario will in the long term result in a loss of biological diversity if such changes occur over wide regions. 4.3 The effects of roads Roads are known to have a great direct and distinct negative impacts on the environment (Foreman 1995, p. 457). In general roads are considered to open up areas for increased traffic, which may in turn increase pollution, noise and other disruptions, as well as increase hunting and tourism activities. Forest roads directly open up much new forest edge and thus increase edge effects. Increased car traffic may indirectly result in increased roadkills since roads often cut across the foraging and migrating paths and territories of species having large home ranges. In the Kiekki area, the main environmental effect of forest roads is an increase in edge effects and increased fragmentation of forest areas as discussed above. Forest roads in the area are often about 4 meters wide with ditches and trees cut on both sides up to 3 meters, with sharp edges on both sides. In it's Forest Environment Guide the Finnish Forest and Park Service states that "environmental harm caused by logging roads can be minimised by assessing the environmental impact of the road network when this is being planned for a particular area" (Finnish Forest and Park Service 1994, p. 15). This requires more than the environmental assessment of individual road developments as the Finnish law on EIA currently demands, but requires an environmental assessment at a strategic or regional level. Further measures to decrease the environmental impact of forest roads could be to restrict traffic on forest roads, minimize roadside cuttings, and in some cases to allow the regeneration of forest on forest roads which are rarely used, as has done in some cases e.g. in Russian Karelia (Sigurdsson et al.1995). The Finnish Environment

27 Figure 17 Future scenario assuming maximum habitat conservation N 1: Figure 18 Future scenario with maximum economic timber harvesting and continued clearcutting The Finnish Environment 275

28 4.4 The cumulative effect of cutting, drainage and roads From the discussion above it can be assumed that changes in environment will most certainly result in the loss of habitat and species diversity since virgin habitats for specialized old growth species become fever, smaller and scantier, plus that species adapted to forest edge environments migrate in and cause further disruption in the ecosystem. An increase in edge species may temporarily increase the biodiversity of particular stands, however a cumulative loss of species diversity may occur within the landscape, since an increased number of biotopes will support the same general species and the landscape may loose its mosaic character where forests are managed for timber production. One of the main aims of CEA is to produce future scenarios for use in decision making. Future scenarios for the Kiekki area are divided into two opposite-pole scenarios, one is a maximum habitat preservation scenario (Figure 17), and another scenario is where the economic gain from the area is maximized by clearcutting and managing all forest patches which are not protected (Figure 18). Both scenarios assume a 1996 status quo with general maintenance and thinning strategy for forests and wetlands which have already been altered from their natural state. The method for CEA presented here is a simple one based mainly on spatial elements, but can still yield some useful scenarios e.g. in the form of maps and diagrams as shown in Figures 13,17 and 18. The Finnish Environment ,

29 The effects of forestry related activities in Kiekki which have been studied here lead to the conclusion that there may have been a severe fragmentation of old growth forest habitats and loss of virgin mires, according to general theories and compared with results from other studies in boreal landscapes, it seems likely that the remaining forest fragments in Kiekki may be subject to increased edge effects. The resulting long term effect is a loss of biotope diversity, since the cleared forest areas have been managed in such ways that they should only support the most important commercially valuable trees. A loss in biotope diversity will ultimately lead to losses in biological diversity, since species dependent on large virgin and old growth areas may not find suitable habitats within the commercially managed forests. Having reached this conclusion the original aim of this paper as to "how the cumulative effects of forestry related activities are manifested in the landscape and whether the resulting changes are in fact cumulative effects or not" can be addressed. The cumulative effect of forestry and related activities in Kiekki may lead to cumulative environmental effects which are losses in biotope diversity at the landscape level, and that these losses occur as a result of all three activities, forest management, mire draining and road development. Furthermore, when the effects of forest fragmentation and edge effects are considered, then the long term effect is the loss of biodiversity which is best described as a synergistic environmental effect, meaning that the final impact is bigger than the sum of all the activities considered. The use of a GIS is a central and integrated part of this study, since most of the data is of spatial nature and is largely available in digital format. The GIS provides opportunities for viewing and measuring each data component, and to analyse fragmentation and edge effects at landscape level using different variables. The relevance of cumulative effect approach for forestry or environmental management in general can also be justified, since the main aim of CEAs is to provide information for decision making. Thus CEA has been defined as the sum of significant past, present and foreseeable future effects of human activities on the environment, unlike the landscape ecological approach which is more focused on understanding the ecological function of large areas and the spatial arrangement of ecosystems and habitats (Turner 1990). Geographical Information Systems are useful in both approaches since both CEA and landscape studies are essentially spatio-temporal in character. Although the spatio-temporal effects of forestry which have been considered here may present interesting and useful information concerning the state of the environment, these are best regarded as a background for more detailed analyses, measuring and monitoring environmental changes such as temporal changes in species diversity, and monitoring indicator or keystone species. Further quantitative analyses might also reveal further significant features concerning the spatial changes in the area like shapes, situation and distance between fragmented biotopes. The method presented here can also be applied to other landscapes with more a diverse land use pattern, since the Kiekki area is relatively isolated landscape with a monotonous land use. Thus the method could also be tested in a landscape with more variation in land use types and where other land use activities are being considered. 0...The Finnish Environment 275

30 The author wishes to acknowledge the valuable help from people at the Finnish Environment Institute: Tapio Lindholm, Raimo Virkkala, Mikael Hilden, Heikki Toivonen, and many others. As well as the Friendship Park Reseach Centre in Kuhmo, where Raimo Heikkilä, Ari Meriruoko, Katja Juntunen and other staff who provided excellent advice and assistance in data collection and field excurstions. Others also deserve some thanks, Risto Kalliola and SakariTbhkanen from the Department of Geography at the University of Turku. Also Michel Bouchard at l'universite de Montreal and several other professors and scholars in Finland. The Finnish Environment 275

31 REFERENCES Angelstam, P 1992: Conservation of communities - the importance of edges, surroundings and landscape mosaic structure. In Hansson, L. (ed.): Ecological principles of nature conservation -applications in temperate and boreal environments, pp Elsevier, London. Bardecki, M.J. 1990: Coping with cumulative impacts: An assessment of legislative and administrative mechanisms. Impact Assessment 8(1-2): Clark, R. 1994: Cumulative effects assessment: a tool for sustainable development. Impact Assessment, vol. 12(3): Cocklin, C., Parker, S., and Jay, J. 1992: Notes on cumulative environmental change I: concepts and Issues. Journal of Environmental Management 35: Commission of the European Communities 1996: Progress report on implementation of the EC programme of policy and action in relation to the environment and sustainable development "Towards sustainability". Commission of the European Communities, Brussels. On the Internet homepage 1/ENV-ACT5/ PROG-REPHTM. Finnish Forest and Park Service 1994: Forestry environment guide. The Finnish Forest and Park Service. Helsinki, 101 pages. Foreman, R.T.T. 1995: Land Mosaics, the ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge University Press, 633 pages. Haila, Y. 1994: Preserving ecological diversity in boreal forests: ecological background, research and management. Ann. Zool. Fennici 31: Hannelius, S. and Kuusela K. 1995: Finland the country of evergreen forest. Forssan Kirjapaino Oy, 192 pages. Hansson, L. 1992: Introduction: applied ecological principles and their implementation in nature conservation. In Lennart Hansson (ed.): Ecological principles of nature conservation -applications in temperate and boreal environments, pp 1-8. Elsevier, London. Hansson, L. 1994: Edge effects in managed forests and implications for conservation In: Y. Haila, P Niemela and J. Kouki (eds.): Effects of management on the ecological diversity of boreal forests. METLA -The Finnish Forest Research Centre, publication nr. 482: Heikkilä, R. 1984: Unprofitable forest drainage of sparsely tree covered and treeless poor mires, especially in Southern Ostrobothnia, Western Finland. (English summary). Suo 35: Johnston,C.A., Detenbeck, N.E., and Niemi, G.J. 1990: The cumulative effect of wetlands on stream water quality and quantity. A landscape approach. Biogeochemistry 10: Juntunen, K. 1997: Metsänkäyttö erällä Kuhmon valtion mailla vuosina ja sen vaikutus metsien luonnontilaisuuteen. MSc thesis. University of Oulu, Department of Geography. Korhonen, K M. 1996: Landscape ecological planning in Finland's state-owned forests. Forest and Park Service, 3 pages. Kubin, E. and Kemppainen, L. 1994: Effects of soil preparation of boreal spruce forest on air and soil temperature conditions in forest regeneration areas. Acta Forestalia Fennica 244, 56 pages. Lauhanen, R. 1994: Tree damage caused by excavating machines in ditch network 0...The Finnish Environment 275

32 Lawrence, D. 1994: Cumulative effects assessment at the project level. Impact Assessment maintenance. Suo 45(2): Lawrence, D. 1994: Cumulative effects assessment at the project level. Impact Assessment 12: Lawrence, D. 1997: Cumulative impacts and EIA: project level considerations. EIA Newsletter 14. EIA Centre, University of Manchester, pp Lull, K., Tindall, J., and Potts, D. 1995: Assessing nonpoint-source pollution risk. Journal of Forestry, January 1995, pp McCold, L., and Saulsbury, J. 1996: Including past and present impacts in Cumulative Impact Assessments, Environmental Management 20(5): Mladenoff, D.J., Crow, I, and Pastor, J.1993: Applying principles of landscape design and management to integrate old-growth forest enhancement and commodity use. Conservation Biology 8(3): McGarigal, K. and Marks, B. 1994: Fragstats spatial analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. Version 2.0, 67 pages. Ministry of Environment 1992: The state of the Finnish environment. National Board of Waters and Environment, Environment Data Service. Helsinki. Paasovaara, E 1994: Mire site types and peatland drainage in Kuusamo, northern Finland. Suo 45(1):1-16. Rikkinen, K. 1992: A geography of Finland. University of Helsinki, Lahti Research and Training Centre, 145 pages. Saarinen, M. and Silver, T. 1992: Evaluation of ditch network maintenance on drained nutrient-poor pine mires. Suo 43(3). Sigurdsson, A., Nyström, N., Gurova, S. 1995: Environmental protection and forestry in Russian Karelia. Russian Karelia - an opportunity for the west. Occasional papers 29, Dept. of Geography, University of Joensuu, pages Sjöberg, K. and Lennartsson, T 1995: Fauna and flora management in forestry. Multipleuse forestry in the Nordic countries. METLA / Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa, pp Smith G.L. 1993: Impact assessment and sustainable resource management. Longman Group UK Limited, 210 pages. Spaling, H. 1994: Cumulative effects assessment- concepts and principles. Impact Assessment 12: Spaling, H. and Smit, B. 1993: Cumulative environmental change: conceptual frameworks, evaluation approaches and institutional perspectives. Environmental Management 17(5): Spaling, H. 1997: Cumulative impacts and EIA: Concepts and approaches. EIA Newsletter 14. EIA Centre, University of Manchester, pp Towle, K. 1997: The role of ecological restoration in biodiversity conservation: Basic issues and guidelines. On the Internet homepage CA/ RESTORATIONANDBIODIVERSITY.HTML#B Tuhkanen, S. 1994: Landscape ecology in geography. In Cultural ecology -one theory. Publications of the project Changing Environment - Changing Society. University of Turku, pp Turner, M.G. 1990: Spatial and temporal analysis of landscape patterns. Landscape Ecology 4(1): Vasander, H. 1990: Plant biomass, its production and diversity on virgin and drained southern boreal mires. Publications from the Department of Botany, University of Helsinki, no. 18,16 pages. Virkkala, R. 1987: Effects of forest management on birds breeding in northern Finland. Ann. Zool. Fennici 24: Väisänen, R. and Heliövaara, K. 1994: Assessment of insect occurrence in boreal forests based on satellite imagery and field measurements. Acta Forestalia Fennica 243:1-39. Wahlström, E., Hallanaro, E-L., and Manninen, S. 1996: The future of the Finnish environment. Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, 272 pages. The Finnish Environment 275

33 Publisher Author(s) Title of publication Date Finnish Environment Institute October 1998 Albert Sigurdsson Landscape ecological changes in the Kiekki border area after a cumulative effects assessment approach Abstract Finnish forests have been intensively cut and managed since WWII. The cumulative effects of forestry related activities were examined in the landscape of the Kuhmo border area in Finland, adjacent to the Russian border. The study was focused on spatio-temporal changes in the landscape as farback as the 1940s, when the first extensive clearcuts have been documented, using geographical information system techniques. The data come from different time periods in the form of aerial photos, forest inventories and various maps. The aim of the study is to explore the visible landscape ecological changes due to forest cutting, mire drainage and road building, particularly regarding the possible cumulative or synergistic environmental effects. It was found that due to forest fragmentation, edge effects and loss of habitat diversity the environmental effects of human activities may be synergistic in such a way that the overall impact is larger than the sum of input activities that contributed to the effects. The main cumulative effects are found to be losses of biological and habitat diversity in the long term. Keywords Forests, forestry, drainage, GIS landscape ecology, biotopes, biodiversity, biological effects Publication series and number Theme of publication The Finnish Environment 275 Nature and natural resources ISSN ISBN No, of page Language 34 english Restrictions Price Public 50 FIM For sale at/ distributor Edita tel telefax Financier of publication Printing place and year Finnish Environment Institute Edita,Helsinki The Finnish Environment

34 Kvikdehti julkaisija Suomen ympäristökeskus Julkaisuaika Lokakuu 1998 Tekijä(t) Albert Sigurdsson julkaisun nimi Tiivistelmä Alue-ekologiset muutokset Kuhmon rajanläheisellä valtionmetsäalueella vuoden 1940 jälkeen - kertyvien vaikutusten arviointi Suomen metsissä alkoi toisen maailmansodan jälkeen voimakas avohakkuuseen perustuva hakkuutoiminta, joka ulottui myös aikoinaan metsätalouden ulkopuolella olleille alueille. Tämän hakkuutoiminnan etenemisen alue-ekologisia vaikutuksia tutkittiin Kainuussa, Kuhmossa lähellä itärajaa. Tutkimuksessa selvitettiin ajan myötä tapahtuneita maiseman muutoksia luvulta nykyhetkeen käyttäen hyväksi paikkatietolähteitä, kuten ilmakuvia eri vuosilta, metsätalouden tarkastusten tietoja ja erilaisia karttoja. Työn tarkoituksena oli selvittää metsien hakkuiden, metsäautoteiden ja soiden ojittamisen aiheuttama maiseman näkyvä muutos. Erityisesti tarkasteltiin näiden mahdollista yhteis- ja kertyvää vaikutusta. Tuloksena oli, että metsän pirstoutumisen, reunavaikutuksen ja elinympäristöjen hupenemisen seuraus voi olla yhteisvaikutteista siten, että vaikutus on suurempi kuin eri toimenpiteiden vaikutus yhteenlaskettuna olisi. Asiasanat Metsät, metsätalous, suot, ojitus, biologiset vaikutukset, paikkatieto, alue-ekologia, elin mpä - ristö, luonnon monimuotoisuus Julkaisusarjan nimi Suomen ympäristö 275 ja numero julkaisun teema Luonto ja luonnonvarat Julkaisun myynti/ jakaja Julkaisun kustantaja Sivuja 34 Kieli englanti Luottamuksellisuus Hinta julkinen Oy Edita Ab, julkaisumyynti, puh. (09) telefax (09) Suomen ympäristökeskus 50 mk Painopaikkaja -aika Oy Edita Ab, Helsinki 1998 The Finnish Environment 275,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, e,,,,,,, o,,,,,,,.,,,. Q

35 PresetatiosbId Utgivare Finlands miljöcentral Författare Albert Sigurdsson Datum Oktober 1998 Publikationens titel Sammandrag Landskapsekologiska förändinar inom statsägda skogsområden efter 1940, i Kuhmo, i närheten av ryska gränsen - en utvärdering av samlade effekter Finska skogsnaturen har genomgått en kraftig förändring efter andra väldskriget eftersom skogsavverkningarna till stor del har baserats på kalhyggen. Kalhyggena har även berört område utanför produktionsskogarna. I publikationen presenteras de landskapsekologiska effekterna av använda avverkningsmetoder i Kuhmo, Kajanaland i närheten av finska östgränsen, samt hur skogslandskapet har förändrats inom området från 1940-talet till idag. Undersökningen baseras pa flygfoton tagna vid olika tidpunkter, material från skogmyndigheters kartläggningar samt material från flera olika kartor. Målsättningen med undersökningen var att kartlägga hur avverkningarna, anläggandet av skogsbilvägar och utdikningen av myrmarker har inverkat på skogsnaturen. Samverkande och additiva effekter har främst studerats. Undersökningarna visade, att skogsområden har fragmenterats, randeffekterna har ökat och värdefulla biotopers areal har minskat. Man fann även additiva effekter d.v.s. att summan av de negativa effekterna är större än den vore om de endast hade summerats. Nyckelord Skogar, skogsbruk, myrar, utdikning, geografiska data, landskapsekologi, livsmiljö, biodiversitet Publikationsserie och nummer Publikationenstema Beställningar/ distribution MiljöniFinland275 Natur och naturtillgångar ISSN ISBN Sidantal Språk 34 engelska Offentlighet Offentlig EditaAb tel. (09) telefax (09) Pris 50 mk Förläggare Finlands miljöcentral Tryckeri/ Edita Ab, Helsingfors 1998 tryckningsort och -år 0...The Finnish Environment 275

36 Suomen ympäristö (The Finnish Environment) 36. Alanen, Jouni & Saastamoinen, Salla: Euroopan Unioniin tuotavat rakennustuotteet, vaatimusten mukaisuuden osoittaminen. Ympäristöministeriö. 37. Pohjois-Suomen vanhojen metsien suojelun kompensaatiotyöryhmän mietintö. Ympäristöministeriö. 38. Tanskanen, Juha-Heikki: Syntypaikkalajitteluun perustuvan yhdyskuntajätehuollon tarkastelu. -jätevirrat, kustannuksetja päätökset. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 39. Malaska, Pentti; Luukkanen, Jyrki; Vehmas, Jarmo & Kaivo-oja, Jari: Ympäristöperusteinen energiaverotus Pohjoismaisia vertailujaja suomalaisen keskustelun arviointia. Ympäristöministeriö. 40. Ilen, Pekka; Rautavuori, Leena & Salminen, Eero: Uukuniemen kirkonkylän kulttuurimaiseman hoitosuunnitelma. Ympäristöministeriö. 41. Ympäristöministeriö: Kaavoitustoimen seuranta. Ympäristöministeriö. 42. Outila, Tarja: Keivitsan kaivoshanke - kaavoitusjärjestelmätja luonnonsuojelu. Ympäristöministeriö. 43. Lankinen, Markku: Asuntorakentamisen ennakointi - Määrästä laatuun. Ympäristöministeriö. 44, Tanskanen, Heikki; Walls, Mari; Maripuu, Lea & Tuhkanen, Tuula: Otsonoinninja otsoni/vetyperoksidikäsittelyjen vaikutus metsäteollisuuden kuorimovesien ekotoksisuuteen. Pohjois-Savon ympäristökeskus. 45. H uttunen, Leena; Rönkä, Esa & Matinvesi, Jukka: Erilaisten viljely- ja lannoitustapojen vaikutus pohjaveden laatuun-lysimetritutkimus karkealla hietamaalla. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 46. Paulus, Ilkka: Romaniväestön asuntotilanne 1990-luvun puolivälissä. Ympäristöministeriö. 47. Monitoimijainen lähiöuudistus. Lähiötyöryhmän loppuraporttija toimenpide-ehdotukset. Ympäristöministeriö. 48. Tarkoma,Jari: Asumisoikeusasunnot-ja asukkaat. Tilastoselvitys vuosina 1992ja 1993 valmistuneista asunnoista. Ympäristöministeriö. 49. Saarenheimo, Ulla & von Hertzen, Heikki, S: Asunnottomuus väheni Suomessa. Määrätietoinen työ tuo tuloksia. Ympäristöministeriö. 50. Myllymäki, Pauliina: Radonin ja uraanin poisto kalliopohjavedestä. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 51. Salo, Simo; Ekholm, Petri & Knuuttila, Seppo : A comparison of methods for nutrient source appartionment in Nordic rivers. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 52. Paukkunen, Marika & Vartia, Pauli: Selvitys ympäristövaikutusten arviointimenettelyn kokemuksista Ympäristöministeriö. 53. Haimi,Jari & Salminen, Janne: Kemikaalien haittavaikutukset terrestrisessä ympäristössä - tutkimusja testimenetelmien kehittäminen erityisesti suomalaiselle maaperälle. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 54. Rintala, Jari: Soranottoalueiden jälkihoito - pintarakennemateriaalit suojaverhouksessa. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 55. Britschgi, Ritva & Gustafsson, Juhani (toim.): Suomen luokitellut pohjavesialueet. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 56. Heli Vuoksimaa: Lasipakkausten kierrätysjärjestelmät ja niiden kustannukset Suomessa -keräysjärjestelmien kustannustehokkuusvertailu. Ympäristöministeriö. 57. Nysten, Taina & Hänninen, Tuija: Tiesuolan pohjavesihaittojen vaikutuksista ja torjuntakeinoista. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 58. Marttunen, Mika; Hellsten, Seppo; Puro, Annukka; Huttula, Erkki; Nenonen, Marja-Leena, Järvinen, Erkki; Salonen, Erno; Palomäki, Risto; Huru, Helge & Bergman, Tarja: Inarijärven tila, käyttöja niihin vaikuttavat tekijät. Lapin ympäristökeskus. 59. Kettunen, Aija: Kuntien ympäristöhallinnon asema ja tila; Faktaaja käsityksiä. Ympäristöministeriö. 60. U usien vuokrasuhteiden vuokrat. Tilastoselvitys vapaarahoitteisten vuokra-asuntojen uusista vuokrasuhteista huhtikuussa Ympäristöministeriö. 61. Pehkonen, Pertti & Jansson, Jonna: Viheralan tutkimus- ja kehittämistyö. Tilannekatsaus. Ympäristöministeriö. 62. Söderman, Lundsten, Leinonen & Grönholm: Valtakunnallisen yöperhosseurannan 3. vuosiraportti. 3 Nocturna Annual Newsletter Suomen ympäristökeskus. 63. Rosenström, Ulla; Lehtonen, Markku & Muurman, Jarmo: Trends in the Finnish Environment - Indicators for the 1997 OECD Environmental Performance Review of Finland. Ympäristöministeriö. 64. Haarni, Tuukka & Vartiainen, Perttu: Kaupunkiverkostoituminen Suomessa. Ympäristöministeriö. 65. Nyman; Halmetoja; Pohtamaa ym: M/S Eiran öljyvahingon pitkäaikaisvaikutukset Merenkurkussa. Länsi-Suomen ympäristökeskus. 66. Sinisalmi, Tuomo (toim.): Vesivoimalaitosten lyhytaikaissäädön vaikutustutkimukset. Pohjois-Pohjanmaan ympäristökeskus. 67. Kananoja, Tapio: Kymen läänin kallioperän suojelu-ja opetuskohteita. Ympäristöministeriö. 68. Keppo, Eeva: Vaasan läänin kulttuuriympäristöohjelma. 69. Hyvärinen, Veli (toim.): Hydrologinen vuosikirja Hydrological yearbook Suomen ympäristökeskus. 70. Savolainen, Matti: Omakotitalojen kustannuslaskentajärjestelmä. Ympäristöministeriö. 71. Nysten, Taina; Suokko, Tuulikki & Tarvainen, Timo: Ympäristögeologian sovelluksia GTK - SYKE ympäristötutkimusseminaari Suomen ympäristökeskus. 72. Kemppainen, Eija: Suomen uhanalaiset lajit. Ketonukki (Androsace septentrionalis). Suomen ympäristökeskus. 73. Halonen, Pekka; Tuukki, Eeva; Puolasmaa, Arto & Kaipiainen, Heidi: Suomen uhanalaisia lajeja: Pohjanhyytelöjäkälä (Collenia curtispornrn) Lännenhyytelöjäkälä (Collemn nigrescens) Risahyytelöjäkälä (Collema mnitipartitnrn). Suomen ympäristökeskus. 74. Kemppainen, Eija & Karling, Marita: Suomen uhanalaisia lajeja: Koirankieli (Cynoglosswn officinale). Suomen ympäristökeskus. The Finnish Environment

37 75. Kosonen, Lasse; Kaipiainen, Heidi & Kemppainen, Eija: Suomen uhanalaiset lajit Mäkiorvokki (Viola collina). Suomen ympäristökeskus. 76. Pykälä, Juha & Vuorinen Soili: Suomen uhanalaiset lajit. Punavalkku (Cephalanthera r,ibra). Suomen ympäristökeskus. 77. Pykälä, Juha & Vuorinen Soili: Suomen uhanalaisia lajeja: Vuorikuisma (Hypericium rontamon). Suomen ympäristökeskus. 78. Kaipiainen, Heidi; Kemppainen, Eija & Bonn; Thomas: Suomen uhanalaisia lajeja: Tähkähelmikkä (Melica ciliata). Hotade arter i Finland: Grusslok (Melica ciliata). Suomen ympäristökeskus. 79. Joensuu, Ilona; Vuori, Kari-Matti & Nieminen, Mari: Vesistörakentamisen ja lyhytaikaissäännöstelyn vaikutus Perhonjoen koskien eliöyhteisöilhin. Keski-Pohjanmaan ympäristökeskus. 80. Hassi, Laura: Ihanteita ja ohjausvälineitä - asumisen tuen kohdentuminen vuonna Ympäristöministeriö. 81. Grönroos, J uha; Rekolainen, Seppo & Nikander, Antero: Maatalouden ympäristötuen toimenpiteiden toteutuminen v Suomen ympäristökeskus. 82 Leskelä, Ari & Hudd, Richard: Kyrönjoen lohi- ja meritaimenistutusten tuloksellisuus Carlin-merkintöjen perusteella. Länsi-Suomen ympäristökeskus. 83. Hudd, Richard; Kjellman,Jakob & Leskelä, Ari: Kyröjoen suiston poikastuotantoja kalakannat. Länsi- Suomen ympäristökeskus. 84. Markatja maankäyttö. Kaavatalouden näkökohtia päättäjille. Ympäristöministeriö. 85. Uuskallio, Irma: National overview on distressed urban areas in Finland. Ympäristöministeriö. 86. Peltola, Taru: Yritysten muuttuva toimintaympäristö hallinnon haasteena. Hämeen ympäristökeskuksen pk-yritysprojektin loppuraportti. Hämeen ympäristökeskus. 87. Luostarinen, Matti; Yli-Viikari, Anja (toim.): Maaseudun kulttuurimaisemat. Suomen ympäristökeskus, Maatalouden tutkimuskeskus. 88. Airamo, Raimo & Permanto, Timo: Yleiskaavoitusja vaikutusten arviointi. Esimerkkinä Lahden yleiskaavoitus Ympäristöministeriö. 89. Seppälä, Jyri & Jouttijärvi, Timo (toim.): Metsäteollisuusja ympäristö. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 90. Jokioisten kulttuuriympäristöohjelma. Ympäristöministeriö. 91. Kilpailuttaminen valtion tukemassa asuntotuotannossa. Työryhmän mietintö. Ympäristöministeriö. 92 Malaska, Pen tti; Luukkanen, Jyrki; Vehmas, Jarmo & Kaivo-oja, Jari: Environment- Based Energy Taxation in the Nordic Countries. Comparisons by Energy Source and a Review of the Finnish Discussion. Ympäristöministeriö. 93. Muuttuva ihminen - muuttuva asunto. Ympäristöministeriö. 94. Jauhiainen, Tapani; Vuorinen, Heikki; Heinonen-Guzejev, Marja & Paikkala, Sirkka-Liisa: Ympäristömelun vaikutukset. Ympäristöministeriö. 95. Lind, Tuula & Pietala, Jorma: Kotipalveluja käyttävien vanhusten kauppamatkat Lahdessa. Ympäristöministeriö. 96. The Finnish Background Report for the EC Documentation of Best Available Techniques for Pulp and Paper Industry. Ympäristöministeriö. 97. Alanen, Tommi & Ratia, Pasi: Asuntorakentamisen työllisyysvaikutukset. Ympäristöministeriö. 98. Pitkäjärvi, Jyrki: Geenitekniikalla muunnettujen mikro-organismien ympäristövaikutukset. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 99. Viinikainen, Tytti: Yhteiskuntatieteellinen ympäristötutkimus Suomessa. Katsaus tutkimusaloihin ja kirjallisuuteen. Suomen ympäristökeskus Pietiläinen, 011i-Pekka & Pirinen, Marja: Typpi-ja fosforikuormituksen vaikutus perifytonon kasvuun Kymijoella. Suomen ympäristökeskus Maataloudesta peräisin olevien nitraattien vesiin pääsyn rajoittamista koskeva valtioneuvoston päätösehdotus. -Työryhmän mietintö. Ympäristöministeriö. 102 Suurmyymälätyöryhmän mietintö. Ympäristöministeriö Kilpi, Mikael & Asanti, Timo (toim.): Saaristolinnuston suojelun nykytila Suomen rannikoilla. Suomen ympäristökeskus Björklöf, Katarina: Merkkigeenien käyttö geeniteknisesti muunnettujen mikro-organismien seurantaan ympäristössä. Suomen ympäristökeskus Filatov & Heinonen: Results of the Finnish-Russian Joint Study of the Lakes Onega, Ladoga and Saimaa Conducted in the Summer of Suomen ympäristökeskus Hukkanen, Tiina: Puutaloprojekti. Ympäristöministeriö 107. Paldanius, Jari: Vuorovaikutteisen suunnittelun kokemuksia Suomessa. Ympäristöministeriö Biodiversiteettityörylunä: Ympäristöministeriön toimintaohjelma luonnon monimuotoisuuden säilyttämiseksi. Ympäristöministeriö Lahti, Pekka; Heinonen, Sirkka; Koski, Kimmo & Tolsa, Heimo: Kestävä kehitys aluerakenteessa. Kansainvälisiä näkemyksiä, suomalainen sovellus. Ympäristöministeriö Water and Wastewater Management in Finland and Fifteen Other European Countries. Ympäristöministeriö Luontokoulutyöryhmä: Luontokoulutoiminta. Palvelut. Kehittämisideat, Verkostot. Ympäristöministeriö Sipilä, Kaija: Luonto-ja leirikoulutominta osana maaseudun kehittämistä. Ympäristöministeriö Itämeren tila. Ympäristöministeriö Siikanen, Antti: Kotitalousja asumismenot. Selvitys lama-ajan asumismenoista. Ympäristöministeriö Äystö, Virpi: Rehevienjärvien kunnostusten arviointi. Suomen ympäristökeskus Kleemola, Sirpa & Forsius, Martin: 6th Annual Report UN ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, International Co-operative Programme on Integrated Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Ecosystems. Suomen ympäristökeskus. 0...The Finnish Environment 275

38 117. Marttunen, Mika & Kylmälä, Petri: Kalakantojen hoitomalli Inarijärven kalaistutusten vaikutusten arvioinnissa. Suomen ympäristökeskus Viirikorpi, Paavo: Eteneekö lähiöuudistus? Paikallisten lähiöprojektien käynnistämisvaiheen arviointi. Ympäristöministeriö Mäkinen, Risto: Remonttiohjelma Korjausrakentamisen tutkimus-ja kehitysprojektien tulokset. Ympäristöministeriö Mähönen, Outi & Joki-Heiskala, Päivi: (toim.) AMAP-Arktisen ympäristön tila j a Suomen Lappi. Suomen ympäristökeskus Lehtoranta, Jouni: Ravinteet Itäisen Suomenlahden pintasedimentissä. Suomen ympäristökeskus Åkerblom, Satu: Erityisasuminen. Katsaus Ruotsin vanhusten asumiseen ja 1990-luvuilla. Ympäristöministeriö Sepp älä, Jyri: Decision analysis as a tool for life cycle impact assessment. Suomen ympäristökeskus Lindholm, Tapio; Heikkilä, Raimo & Heikkilä, Marjo (eds.):ecosystems, fauna and flora of the Finnish-Russian Nature Reserve Friendship. Suomen ympäristökeskus Maikki, Sirkka; Heinonen-Tanski, Helvi & Jantunen, Paula: Ympärivuotisten kompostikäymälöiden toimintavarmuus ja häiriöiden kartoitus. Ympäristöministeriö Peuhkuri, Timo: Ympäristövaikutusten arviointi energia-alan ohjelmavalmistelussa. Tapaustutkimus hallituksen energiansäästöohjelman valmisteluprosessista. Suomen ympäristökeskus Kankaanpään kulttuuriympäristöohjelma.ympäristöministeriö Kananoja, Tapio: Turun ja Porin läänin kallioperän suojelu- ja opetuskohteita. Ymp äristöministeriö Kaavoitustoimen seuranta Ympäristöministeriö Asumistuesta itselliseen asumiseen vai toimeentulotukeen? 1 osaraportti. Ympäristöministeriö Melanen, Matti & Ekqvist, Marko (toim.): Suomen ilmanpäästöt ja niiden skenaariot (SIPS-projekti) Tietojärjestelmän tietopohja ja alustavia tuloksia. Suomen ympäristökeskus Nikulainen, Virpi & Pyy, Outi: Huoltoasemien maaperän kunnostus. Suomen ympäristökeskus Isaksson, Kaj: Korjausrakentaminen asunto-osakeyhtiöissä ja aravavuokrataloissa. Ympäristöministeriö Larjavaara, Ilmari: Asuntojen yksityistäminen Pietarissa. Ympäristöministeriö Liukkonen, Matti: Asukkaat asumisoikeusasuntojen suunnittelussa. Ympäristöministeriö Koski, Kimmo & Lahti, Pekka: Kaupan suuryksikötja kunnallistalous - Herkkyysanalyysi. Ympäristöministeriö Suomenbiologista monimuotoisuutta koskeva kansallinen toimintaohjelma Ympäristöministeriö Karvinen, Päivi: Kansalaisten kokemuksia YVA-menettelyyn osallistumisesta. Ympäristöministeriö Kiviniemi, Markku & Sulankivi, Kristiina: Talonrakentamisen ja kiinteistönhoidon laatujärjestelmien tilanneselvitys. Ympäristöministeriö Seppälä, Timo: Torjunta-aineiden käyttäytyminen Suomen ympäristöoloissa. Suomen ympäristökeskus Mujunen, Satu-Pia; Teppola, Pekka & Minkkinen, Pentti: Metsäteollisuuden aktiivilietelaitosten toiminnan monimuuttujainen seuranta ja mallintaminen. Kaakkois-Suomen ympäristökeskus Teollisuuslaitoksen ympäristömelu. Ympäristöministeriö Ilmansuojelun neuvottelukunta: Ilmansuojelututkimuksen kehittämisohjelma Ympäristöministeriö Hudd, Richard & Kålax, Pia: 0+ kalanpoikasten esiintyminenja 0+ kalanpoikasten esiintymisbiotoopit Kyrönjoen alaosalla. Länsi-Suomen ympäristökeskus. Rautio, Mika: Ympäristönsuojelun hallinnollis-oikeudellinen ohjaus kemiallisen metsäteollisuuden vesiensuojelussa. Suomen ympäristökeskus Kultturiympäristönhoito-ohjelma Etelä-SavojaHäme. Etelä-Savon ympäristökeskus Koskiaho, Kristiina (toim.): Eheyttävän suunnittelun haasteet. Neuvottelupäivät ympäristöministeriössä Ympäristöministeriö Vehmas, Jarmo; Malaska, Pentti; Luukkanen, Jyrki & Kaivo-oja, Jari: Ympäristöpoliittiset ohjauskeinot uusiutuvien energialähteiden käytön edistämisessä. Ympäristöministeriö OECD arvioi maamme ympäristöpolitiikkaa. Yhteenveto arvioinnin päätelmistä ja suosituksista. Ympäristöministeriö Environmental Policies in Finland. Background papers for the OECD Environmental Performance Review of Finland Ympäristöministeriö Tanskanen, Juha-Heikki: Valtakunnallisten yhdyskuntajätteen hyödyntämistavoitteiden saavutettavuus Päijät-Hämeessä. Suomen ympäristökeskus Vanhojen metsien suojelutyöryhmä: Vanhojen metsien suojelu Pohjois-Suomessa. Vanhojen metsien suojelutyöryhmän osamietintö III, osa II karttaliitteet. Suomen ympäristökeskus Riihimäki, Juha & Hellsten, Seppo: Konnivesi-Ruotsalaisen säännöstelyn vaikutukset rantavyöhykkeessä. Suomen ympäristökeskus Natura ehdotuksesta annetut lausunnot. Yhteenvedot ministeriöide, asijantuntijatahojen sekä järjestöjen ja edunvalvontatahojen lausunnoista. Ympäristöministeriö Kokko,Kai: Ympäristövaikutustenselvittäminen seutu-ja yleiskaavoituksessa-oikeudellisestanäkökulmasta. Ympäristöministeriö Räihä, Ulla: Alavuden kulttuuriympäristön hoito. Ympäristöministeriö Rönkä, Kimmo; Halomo, Jyrki; Huhdanmäki, Aimo; Teerimo, Seppo; Terho,Juha & Tolsa,Heimo: Hissi vanhaan kerrostaloon. Taloudellinen kannattavuus, sosiaalinen tarpeellisuus sekä hallinnolliset ja taloudelliset edellytykset. Ympäristöministeriö Leskelä, Ari; Hudd, Richard; Kålax, Pia & Kjellman, Jakob: Kevätkutuisten kalalajien lisääntyminen Lappsundinjoella Länsi-Suomen ympäristökeskus Hyvärinen, Marketta: Ympäristövaikutusten arvioinnin kehittäminen metsätalouteen liittyvässä suunnittelussa - esimerkkisuunnitelmien tarkastelu. Pohjois-Pohjanmaan ympäristökeskus. The Finnish Environment

39 160. Marttunen, Mika: Vesisuojelun tavoitteet vuoteen Vaihtoehtoisten kuormitustavoitteiden vaikutukset sisävesissä. Suomen ympäristökeskus Melanen, Matti (toim.): Jätealan tutkimuksen puiteohjelma Suomen ympäristökeskus Ympäristön seurannan strategia. Ympäristöministeriö Tamminen, Pertti; Pakarinen, Kimmo; Lintilä, Janne & Salmela, Arto: Kunnan nettotulot kerrostalo-, rivitalo- ja omakotialueilla.tutkimuskohteena Tampere. Ympäristöministeriö Saarikoski, Heli: Ympäristövaikutusten arviointijätehuollon strategisessa suunnittelussa. Suomen ympäristökeskus Andersson, Harri: Lounais-Suomen saaristo - valtakunnallisen alueidenkäyttötavoitteiden näkökulmasta. Ympäristöministeriö Andersson, Harri: Sydvästra Finlands skärgård - med tanke på de riksomfattande målen för markanvändning. Ympäristöministeriö Nippala, Eero; Nuuttila, Harri & Rintanen, Risto: Asuinrakennusten perusparannustarpeen vaihtoehtoja Ympäristöministeriö Wahlberg, Niklas: Suomen uhanalaisia lajeja: tummaverkkoperhonen (Melitaea diamina). Suomen ympäristökeskus Kuussaari, Mikko; Pöyry, Juha; Savolainen, Markku & Paukkunen, Juho: Suomen uhanalaisia lajeja: lehtohopeatäplä (Clossiana titania). Suomen ympäristökeskus Lindström, Marianne (ed.): Water Legislation in Selected Countries - a Comparative Study for South African Water Law Review. Suomen ympäristökeskus Mäkinen, Risto: Rakentamisen vastuut ja laatu. Selvitysmiehen raportti. Ympäristöministeriö Nurmi, Paula: Eräiden Suomen järvien pohjaeläimistö. Valtakunnallisen seurannan tulokset Suomen ympäristökeskus Haverinen, Kalervo & Lempinen, Petri: Omin avuin, valtion varoin. Opiskelija-asuntojärjestelmä Suomessa. Ympäristöministeriö Vaitomaa, Jaana: Sinilevien ja niiden tuottamien maksatoksiinien käyttäytyminen imeytyksessä. Kokeita harju-ja sedimenttipatsailla. Suomen ympäristökeskus Porvari, Petri & Verta, Matti: Elohopea ja metyylielohopea tekoaltaissa ja Kemijoen vesistössä. Suomen ympäristökeskus Hyvärinen, Veli (toim.) Hydrologinen vuosikirja Hydrological Yearbook 1994.Suomen ympäristökeskus Suomen tekemät kansainväliset ympäristösopimukset. Ympäristöministeriö Helin, Juha: Turvetuotantovelvoitteita koskevat vesituomioistuinten lupapäätökset. Suomen ympäristökeskus Soveri, Jouko; Peltonen, Kimmo &Järvinen, 011i: Laskeuma Helsingin seudulla lumesta määritettynä talvikaudella Suomen ympäristökeskus Vesala, Riitta: Näkökulmia asemakaavaselostuksen uudistamiseen. Ympäristöministeriö Kujala-Räty, Katariina; Hiisvirta, Leena; Kaukonen, Marke; Liponkoski, Markku & Sipilä, Annika: Talousveden laatu Suomessa vuonna Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriö, maa- ja metsätalousministeriö, ympäristöministeriö ja Suomen ympäristökeskus Rusanen, Pekka; Mikkola-Roos, Markku & Asanti, Timo: Merimetso Phalacrocorax carbo - Musta viikinki. Merimetson kannan kehitys ja siihen vaikuttavat tekijät Itämeren piirissä ja Euroopassa. Suomen ympäristökeskus Haukkasalo, Hannu: Kuntarakenne - yleiskaava Nurmijärvi. Ympäristöministeriö Ostamo, Eira & Hilden, Mikael: YVA-yhteysviranomaisten lausuntojen laatu - ympäristövaikutusten arviointimenettelyt Ympäristöministeriö Lehtonen, Elina & Kangasjärvi, Jaakko: Biotekniikan riskit? Siirtogeenisten kasvien ympäristöriskit Suomen oloissa. Suomen ympäristökeskus Heikkilä, Mikko, Karppinen, Seppo & Santasalo, Tuomas: Parempi kaupunkikeskusta - seitsemän kaupunkikeskustan kehittäminen. Ympäristöministeriö Lankinen, Markku: Lähiöt muuttuvat ja erilaistuvat - 36 lähiön tilastollinen seuranta Ympäristöministeriö Räike, Antti & Pietiläinen, 011i-Pekka: Typpikuormituksen vaikutus Lohjanjärvenja sen alapuolisen vesialueen tilaan. Suomen ympäristökeskus Pietiläinen, 011i-Pekka & Niinioja, Riitta: Typpi ja fosfori Pyhäselän rehevöitymisen säätelijöinä. Suomen ympäristökeskus Jauho, Mikko & Allt, Anu: Kokemuksia laitosten muuttamisesta asuinkäyttöön. Ympäristöministeriö Mustonen, Tuija: Mäntyharjun kulttuuriympäristöohjelma. Etelä-Savon ympäristökeskus Kylä-Setälä Annamaija: Maaperänsuojelun toteutuminen alueellisella tasolla - esimerkkinä Satakunta. Suomen ympäristökeskus Lonka Harriet: Öljy-ja kemikaalivahinkojen torjuntavalmiuden tilan selvitys ympäristövahinkojen torjunn an näkökulmasta. Suomen ympäristökeskus Niemi, M.; Kulmala, A.; Vanhala, P.; Kulokoski, V. & Esala, M.: Orgaanisten jäteaineiden vaikutukset maaperän mikrobistoon j a kasvien typensaantiin. Suomen ympäristökeskus Lehtinen; Tana; Mattsson; Engström; Nakari; Ahtiainen & Lagus: Happikemikaalien käyttöön perustuvan massanvalkaisun ympäristövaikutuksia. Suomen ympäristökeskus Liikanen, Anu: Torjunta-aineiden käyttäytyminen ilmakehässä - lähteet, kulkeutuminen ja poistumismekanismit. Suomen ympäristökeskus Ahonen, Ilpo, Jalkanen, Aija & Vähäsöyrinki, Asko: Työntekijöiden kemikaalialtistuminen saastuneiden maa-alueiden kunnostuksessa. Suomen ympäristökeskus Lukin, Markus: Kestävä tuote-ja kulutuspolitiikka - kansainväliset lähtökohdat, kansallinen sisältö ja kaupan näkökulma. Ympäristöministeriö Honkatukia, Juha: Ympäristöverot ja työllisyys. Katsaus tutkimustuloksiin ja toimenpiteisiin Pohjoismaissa ja Hollannissa. Ympäristöministeriö The Finnish Environment

40 200. Tulonen, Annu: Asikkalan kulttuuriympäristöohjelma. Ympäristöministeriö Hilden, M.; Tahvonen, 0 & Valsta, L.: Natura 2000-verkoston vaikutusten arviointi. Suomen ympäristökeskus Vaajasaari, Kati; Dahlbo, Helena; Joutti, Anneli; Schultz, Eija; Ahtiainen, Jukka; Nakari, Tarja; Pönni, Seppo & Nevalainen, Jukka: Liukoisuus- ja biotestet jätteiden kaatopaikkakelpoisuuden määrittämisessä. Loppuraportti. Pirkanmaan ympäristökeskus Helminen, H.; Häkkilä, K.; Keränen, M.; Koponen, J.; Laihanen, P. & Ylinen, H.: Turun edustan virtaus-ja vedenlaatumalli. Lounais-Suomen ympäristökeskus ila, Markku (toim.): Vesistöjen käyttöön liittyvä taloudellinen varallisuus. Suomen ympäristökeskus Otterström, Tomas, Gynther, Lea & Laurikka, Harri: Ympäristökustannusten arviointimenetelmät. Ympäristöministeriö Grönroos, Juha; Nikander, Antero; Syri, Sanna; Rekolainen, Seppo & Ekqvist, Marko: Maatalouden ammoniakkipäästöt. Suomen ympäristökeskus Liike-ja palvelurakennusten kuntoarvio. Ympäristöministeriö Hirvonen, Jukka: Toimivatko tulorajat. Tilastollista perustietoa aravatulorajojen toimivuudesta. Ympäristöministeriö Huttula, Timo: Present state and future fate of Lake V örtsjärv. Results from Finnish - Estonian joint project in Pirkanmaan ympäristökeskus Ongelmia asunnottomuuden vähentämisessä. Toimenpide-ehdotuksia tilanteen parantamiseksi. Ympäristöministeriö Leppävuori, Keijo; Lehtinen, Ilkka; Aho, Timo & Lampinen, Veikko: Kiinteistöjen ylläpidon kustannusindeksi 1995 = 100. Ympäristöministeriö Siistonen, Pasi: Kaavin kulttuuriympäristöohjelma. Ympäristöministeriö Mattinen, Maire (toim.): Olavinlinna. Maisema ja monumentti.ympäristöministeriö Saarela, Jouko; Kink, Hella; Karise, Vello; Kokkonen, Teemu; Hepojoki, Antti & Kotola, Jyrki (eds): Environmental impact of the former militarybase in the Pakri Peninsula, Estonia. Suomen ympäristökeskus Jätealan seurantajärjestelmä. Jäteseurantaprojektin loppuraportti. Suomen ympäristökeskus, 216. Juutinen, Artti & Mäenpää, Ilpo: Metallijätteiden kierrätyksen talous -ja ympäristövaikutukset. Ympäristöministeriö th Annual Report UN ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. International Cooperative Programme on Integrated Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Ecosystems. Suomen ympäristökeskus Forsius, M.; Guardans, R.; Jenkins, A.; Lundin, L. & Nielsen, K.E. (eds): Integrated Monitoring: Environmental Assessment through Model and Empirical Analysis. Suomen ympäristökeskus Karjalainen, Anneli; Taipale, Lauri & Syri, Sanna: Happamoitumistoimikunnan mietintö. Ympäristöministeriö Saarinen, K.; Jouttijärvi T. & Forsius K.: Monitoring and control of emissions in pulp and paper industry in Finland. Suomen ympäristökeskus Teeriaho, Jari: Ehdotus luonnon monimuotoisuuden indikaattoreiksi kunnille. Suomen ympäristökeskus Laukkanen, Tuula: Sosiaalisen vuokra-asumisen asukasvalinta. Ympäristöministeriö Vehmas, Jarmo; Petäjä, Jouko; Kaivo-oja, Jari; Malaska, Pentti & Luukkanen Jyrki: Ilmastopolitiikka ja Suomi. Kansainvälisiä näkökohtia sekä kansallisia sähköntuotannon ja -kulutuksen skenaarioita. Ympäristöministeriö Soluasuminenja opiskelija-asuntojen perusparantaminen. Ympäristöministeriö Mannermaa, Mika: Megatrendejä ja skenaarioita valtakunnallisen alueiden käytön perustaksi. Ympäristöministeriö Vesiensuojelun tavoitteet vuoteen Målen för skydd av vattnen fram till år Ympäristöministeriö Markkanen, Tuula: Selvitys saastuneiden maamassojen alueellisesta käsittelystä eteläisessä Suomessa. Suomen ympäristökeskus Rantala, Pirjo-Riitta; Nevalainen, Jukka & Jokela, Petri: Metsäteollisuuslietteiden kuivatusmenetelmiä. Pirkanmaan ympäristökeskus Koverola, Hannu: Rakennetun ympäristön indikaattorit. Ympäristöministeriö Huolman, Ilpo: Pihlajaveden tila ja suojelun lähtökohdat. Life Pihlajsvesi -projekti. Etelä-Savon ympäristökeskus Sommarlund, H.; Pekkarinen, M.; Kansanen, P.; Vahtera, H. & Väisänen, T.: Savipeittomenetelmän soveltuvuus Tuusulanjärven sedimentin kunnostukseen. Uudenmaan ympäristökeskus Rakennusten energiatodistus. Loppuraportti. Ympäristöministeriö Häikiö, Martti; Laitinen, Jyrki; Lakso, Esko & Lehtinen, Antti: Laskeutusaltaiden käyttökelpoisuus viljelyalueiden vesiensuojelussa. Suomen ympäristökeskus Yakovlev, Valery, A.: Acidity of small lakes in Finnish Lapland - based on aquatic macroinvertebrate studies in Lapin ympäristökeskus Larjavaava, Ilmari: Asuntojen hallinnon muutos Venäjällä. Ympäristöministeriö Lintunen, Petri; Hytönen, Mervi; Ikonen, Kirsi; Kivimäki, Sari: Laatokan pohjoisrannikon kulttuuriympäristö. Suomalainen kulttuuriperintö Laatokan luoteis- ja pohjoisrannan maisemissa. "Teksti myös venäjäksi".suomen ympäristökeskus Tiuri, Ulpu & Huovila, Pekka: & Miljöö Teknologiakilpailu ja koerakentaminen. Tulokset ja johtopäätökset. Ympärstöministeriö Antila, Raimo: Kunnostuksen yleissuunnitelmat ja kunnostusratkaisut Hattulan käytöstä poistetuille kaatopaikoille. Hämeen ympäristökeskus. The Finnish Environment

41 239. Grönroos, Juha; Rekolainen, Seppo; Palva, Reetta; Granlund, Kirsti; Bärlund, Ilona; Nikander, Antero & Laine, Yki: Maatalouden ympäristötuki. Toimenpiteiden toteutuminen ja vaikutukset Suomen ympäristökeskus YVA-lainsäädännön tarkistamistyöryhmän mietintö. Ympäristöministeriö Survo, Kyösti & Hänninen, Otto: Altistuminen ympäristömelulle Suomessa. Esiselvitys. Pohjois- Savon ympäristökeskus Hassi, Laura: Korkotuki ylivelkaantuneiden asumisen tukena. Ympäristöministeriö Vartiainen, Perttu: Itämeren alueen kaupunkiverkoston kuvausjärjestelmä. Ympäristöministeriö Lehto, Mervi: Tekniikkaa ikä kaikki. Käyttäjän käsitys asumisen automaatiosta. Ympäristöministeriö Nevalainen, Jukka; Dahlbo, Helena: Suolakyllästämöalueen maaperän saastuneisuuden selvittäminen ja kunnostaminen. Pirkanmaan ympäristökeskus Assesment of the competence and suitability of the Finnish Environment Institute Laboratory - as national environment al reference laboratory. Ympäristöministeriö Turkki, Hanna; Joensuu, Elina, Kirkkala, Teija; Lavinto, Ari; Mäkinen, Seppo & Siitonen, Mikko: Järviluonnon vaaliminen. Pomarkun / Siikaisten Valkjärven esimerkki. Lounais-Suomen ympäristökeskus Maaperänsuojelun tavoitteet. Maaperänsuojelun tavoitetyöryhmän mietintö. Ympäristöministeriö Mujunen, Satu-Pia; Linderborg, Irma; Hirvikallio, Hilkka; Minkkinen, Pentti & Wirkkala, Riitta-Sisko: Adenosiinitrifosfaatin (ATP) soveltuvuus seurantaparametriksi sellu-ja paperitehtaiden biologisessa jäteveden puhdistuksessa. Kaakkois-Suomen ympäristökeskus Perttula, Heli: Puurijärven tila ja lintuveden kunnostusperiaatteet. Lounais-Suomen ympäristökeskus Rikkidioksidi- ja typenoksidipäästöjen vähentämismandollisuudet. Ympäristöministeriö Koivusaari, Juhani; Koskenniemi, Esa; Latvala, Jyrki; Lax, Hans-Göran; Rautio, Liisa Mar a; Teppo, Anssi & Julkunen, Martin: Kyröjoen tila ja vesistötöiden vaikutukset Länsi-Suomen ympäristökeskus Pietiläinen, 011i-Pekka; Ristimella, Tero & Itkonen, Juhani: Typpi ja fosfori Kemijoen perifytontuotannon säätelijöinä. Ympäristöministeriö 254. Hallituksen kestävän kehityksen ohjelma. Valtioneuvoston periaatepäätös ekologisen kestävyyden edistämisestä. Ympäristöministeriö Koski, Kimmo; Ritakallio, Veli-Matti; Huhdanmäki, Aimo & Vuorenhela, Turo: Myymäläverkon muutosten sosiaaliset ja sosiaalitoimeen kohdistuvat vaikutukset. Ympäristöministeriö Vehanen, Teppo; Marttunen, Mika; Tervo, Hannu; Kylmälä, Petri & Hyvärinen, Pekka: Oulujärven kalatalouden monitavoitteinen kehittäminen. Suomen ympäristökeskus Hoffren, Jukka: Materiaalivirtatilinpito luonnonvarojen kokonaiskulutuksen seurantavälineenä. Ympäristöministeriö Tanninen, Timo & Hirvonen, Jukka: Asumistuen leikkauksista tuen vaikuttavuuden arviointiin. Asumistuen leikkausten kohdentuminen, asumistilanteen muutokset ja leikkausten vaikutus toimeentulotukeen vuosina Ympäristöministeriö Heikkilä, Mika: Hyrynsalmen kulttuuriympäristöohjelma. Ympäristöministeriö Valtakunnallinen jätesuunnitelma vuoteen Ympäristöministeriö Regeringens program för en hållbar utveckling. Statsrådets principbeslut om främjande av ekologisk hållbarhet. Ympäristöministeriö Hissit ja poistumistiet vanhoissa kerrostaloissa. Ympäristöministeriö Heiskanen, Anna-Stiina; Lundsgaard, Claus; Reigstadt, Marit & 011i, Kalle (toim.): Sedimentation and recycling in aquatic ecosystems - the impact of pelagicprocesses and planktonic food web structure. Suomen ympäristökeskus Panu, Jorma: Maisemarakenteenja taajamarakenteen yhteensovittaminen. Ympäristöministeriö Jormola, Jukka; Järvelä, Juha; Lehtinen, Antti & Pajula, Heikki: Luonnonmukainen vesirakentaminen. Suomen ympäristökeskus Finnish Government Programme for Sustainable Development. Council of State Decision-in- Principle on the Promotion of Ecological Sustainability. Ympäristöministeriö Aro, Teuvo; Jyrkkäranta, Jyrki & Hääl, Kaido: Virolaiskerrostalojen lämmön ja veden kulutus. Ympäristöministeriö Suutari, Riku; Johansson, Matti &Tarvainen, Timo: Aineistojen alueellistaminen kriging-menetelmällä ympäristömallintamisessa. Suomen ympäristökeskus Futures for FEI. International Evaluation of the Finnish Environment Institute. Ympäristöministeriö Kaipiainen, Maarit: Tiivis ja matala puurakentaminen. Ympäristöministeriö Rintanen, Tapio & Kare, Päivi: Suomen uhanalaisia lajeja: Sorsanputki (Sion latifolium). Suomen ympäristökeskus Wesamaa, Pekka: Kaavojen laatimisajat Ympäristöministeriö Leikola, Niko: Metsäluoroion monimuotoisuus ja metsien käytön historia Etelä-Pohjanmaalla. Suomen ympäristökeskus Manninen, Pertti: Havasten limoittumistutkimus Konnivesi-Ruotsalaisella talvella Etelä-Savon ympäristökeskus. 0...The Finnish Environment 275

42 The Finnish Environment 444 NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES Landscape ecological changes in the Kuhmo border area after 1940 A cumulative effects assessment approach This paper describes how environmental effects of forestry related activities, forest clearcutting, mire drainage and roads, accumulate in the forest landscape. Using a case study from the Kuhmo border in Finland as an example. The study presents geographical information systems as a simple tool for analysing and assessing landscape ecological change using concepts from both landscape ecology and cumulative effects assessment. The study finds that on a regional level, cumulative effects of forest management are manifested in the loss of habitat diversity which in turn leads to losses in biological diversity. ISBN ISSN EDITA Ltd. P.O.Box 800, FIN EDITA, Finland Phone MAIL ORDERS Phone , fax EDITA-BOOKSHOPS IN HELSINKI Annankatu 44, phone (09) Eteläesplanadi 4, phone (09) o n c, 0 n c, U r? o c) o c) 0 0 n 0 0 n 0 0 r; 0 0 FINNISH ENVIRONMENT INSTITUTE RO.BOX I40, FIN HELSINKI